Контрольная по английскому языку

Контрольная по английскому языку
TEXT 1.
GRAMMAR: INDEFINITE TENSES (ACTIVE)

TRAINING SCIENTISTS IN THE RUSSIA
Russia people learn to love science even while they are at school. Schools of higher learning develop the first elements of scientific training which school boys and girls get at secondary schools. At higher schools, for the first time, students begin to take part in scien¬tific and engineering work. Besides their studies, they carry on research in different students groups and socie¬ties. Professors help students to develop their abilities and discover in which field of science and technique they will employ these abilities.
The main way in which research workers and higher-school teachers get their scientific training is the post¬graduate course. The establishment of such courses in 1925 laid the foundation for the training of scientists.
Young people who graduate from schools of higher le¬arning and want to take a post-graduate course do so after two years of practical work. They take examinations in special subject, and a foreign language.
In our country we also have an extra-mural course of post-graduate training for people who want to do scientific research but do not want to leave work.
Now post graduate have to some fee. But those who take a full-time post-graduate course get state allowances. Universities and institutes provide post-graduates free of charge with all scientific instruments and experimental equipment.

TEXT 2. (ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ЗАОЧНИКОВ I КУРСА)
GRAMMAR: СУБЪЕКТНЫЙ И ОБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЕ ОБОРОТЫ
MICHAIL LOMONOSOU
М. U. Lomonosov is considered to be the father of Russian science. Many of his scientific discoveries proved to be invaluable contributions to world science which influenced the work of the progressive scientists of his time. It is difficult to enumerate his many-sided scientific activities.
Lomonosov was a complete master of natural sciences especially in chemistry and physics and it was with Lomonosov that geology, mineralogy, geochemistry, physical chemistry, mining and many other branches of science began. He took great interest in history and mathematics and he is considered to be the founder of Russian materialistic philosophy. Besides all this Lomonosov is known to have been a poet. His literary works remain the most significant, pages of Russian literature which influenced the development of Russian poetry.
Lomonosov is also known to be the author of the first Russian grammar book. In addition to the Russian Lomonosov had a perfect command of many foreign Languages such as Latin, French, German and ancient Greek.
Lomonosov was a prominent Russian artist and he is known to have made a great contribution to the development of Russian pictorial act.
We know Lomonosov's life to be full of difficulties and obstacles which he had to overcome. His father wanted Michail to become a fisher man. But Lomonosov's desire to study was so great that at the age of 19 he started to Moscow on foot to enter the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy. His scientific career lasted 25 years was marked by a striking capacity for work. In these 25 years he carried out a gigantic amount of work in various branches of science, engineering and art. He fought for educating his people and he is sure to have done the best to establish schools all over the country.
By the end of his life Lomonosov had been elected honorary member of a number of foreign academies. Lomonosov died at the age of 54 on April 15, 1765.

TEXT N 3 (для студентов заочников I курса)
GRAMMAR: INDEFINITE TENSES ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Transformations are of two kinds, known as physical and chemical changes.
Physical changes are those which effect the state or condition of matter without changing its composition. There is no change in the composition of a substance when it is transformed from the liquid to the gaseous state by heating, or from the liquid to the solid state by cooling, and vice versa. Thus, in all three states, stream, water, and ice are all the same substance, made up of the simpler substances, hydrogen and oxygen. The state, but not the composition is effected by the process of heating or cooling.
By changes in the conditions of a substance are meant changes such as when a solid mass is made to fine powder, salt or sugar are dissolved in water. It is clear that such transformations like the changes from one state of matter to another, do not affect the composition of the material. The fine power of a substance may be made solid again, and we get back the sail or sugar unchanged by evaporating the water.
Chemical changes, however, are those matter changes in which changes of composition does take place and the new substance formed will not return to its original state, unless it is subjected to another chemical change. Thus iron, when it is effected by moist air, is slowly transformed into iron rust entirely different in its properties from the original iron. The new substances will not become iron again when it is allowed to stand, although the iron can be obtained from it if it is subjected to the proper conditions.
TEXT 4. (ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ЗАОЧНИКОВ I КУРСА)
GRAMMAR : ФУНКЦИИ СЛОВ THAT, ONE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
The characteristic property of a gas is that of diffusion; a gas distributes itself uniformly in any space into which it is put; its volume is determined by the volume of the vessel which contains it. Gases are very compressible; a relatively small change in volume in which they expand when heated is great compared with that of liquids and solids.
Liquids are characterized by possessing a definite volume but no fixed form; they take the shape of the vessel containing them, except when in minute quantities, as drops, they assume a form more or less spherical. According to the kinetic theory, the molecules of a liquid are packed close together and attract one another; the attraction is not great enough, however, to prevent their motion. There is not much free space between the molecules, because liquids are very incompressible – a great pressure has little effect in decreasing the volume of a liquid.
Solids possess a definite form. According to the kinetic theory the molecules are closely packed, and the attraction between them is great enough to prevent free motion. It is possible in a solid, therefore, to have a definite arrangement of the molecules which remain fixed; this is seer in the fact that many solids assume definite forms which are characteristic. For example, when sodium chloride separates from a solution in water, it appears as cubes. Other substances appear in other geometric forms. The study of the forms of crystals has developed into a science called crystallography, a knowledge of which is of service to the chemist.
TEXT 5. (ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ЗАОЧНИКОВ I КУРСА)
GRAMMAR: ФУНКЦИИ И ЗНАЧЕНИЯ ГЛАГОЛОВ SHOULD, WOULD
GRAVITATIONAL WAVES
In 1916 Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In one of its major aspects this is a theory of the nature and operation of gravitational forces with which Einstein intended to replace the classical theory devised by Isaac Newton in the 17th century.
Einstein’s theory makes a number of predictions that are radically different from those of Newton. One of the most striking of these is that gravitational forces should be propagated in waves in a manner similar to the way electric and magnetic forces are. These gravitational waves should consist of cyclically fluctuating gravitational forces; they should carry energy from place to place and they should cause minute fluctuations of the surfaces of objects they encounter.
Any accelerated body could be a source of gravitational waves, but in practice physicists look to large astronomical bodies such as oblate stars or binary stars.
The prediction was that gravitational waves would be extremely weak: for a cylinder a metre long the amount of surface disturbance would be a fraction of the diameter of an atomic nucleus.
For 40 years no one seriously looked for gravitational waves, but in the late 1950’s Dr. Weber began to develop equipment he thought would do the job. As receivers he used aluminium cylinders of about a ton’s weight, and developed piezoelectric sensors that can record fluctuations in the surface of these cylinders amounting to fractions of a nuclear diameter.
In 1969 Dr. Weber announced that his equipment had recorded gravitational waves. Since then he has been subjected to criticism, based mainly on his statistical analysis of the data. In spite of the waves, experiments are now in progress both in this country and the United States.
Most of these try to make the detectors more sensitive or to design new kinds of detectors that will record frequency ranges other than the one – 1.660 cycles per second (Hertz– that Dr. Weber has pioneered).
TEXT 6 (для студентов заочников I курса)
GRAMMAR: CONTINUOUS TENSES (ACTIVE, PASSIVE)
THE HOUSIHG PROBLEM
The Communist Party and the Soviet Government have drawn up a programme for solving the housing problem in our country, во as to overcome the housing shortage in the shortest time possible, and we have all the material resources for achieving it»
The ways and means of solving the housing problem in the USSR are as follows:
Intensive construction in order to eliminate the housing shortage.
Expansion and modernization of the building materials industry and introduction of new building machines.
Improvement of the designing of houses, the working out of economical standard designs, the use of more prefabrication, and the building of large housing blocks by speedy methods.
The most rational use of construction equipment and provision for its proper maintenance.
The Soviet Union holds the first place in the world in the number of flats which are being built per thousand of the population; We are not simply building houses with all modern conveniences but whole districts with their own public service and cultural establishments and shopping centres.
Elimination of the housing shortage which is being realized at present is a problem of great importance. It will be calling for an efficient organization of building work, a steady rise in labour productivity and a reduction of building costs» mechanization and automation of the work, the use of better and cheaper building materials, the introduction of advanced methods of communist work, and the proper use and maintenance of construction equipment.

TEXT 7 (для студентов заочников I курса)
PERFECT TENSES (ACTIVE, PASSIVE)
INVENTORS AND INVENTIONS (A DIALOGUE)
Pete: For thousands of years people led a primitive way of life and then in comparatively short period of time a gigantic leap has been made in the scientific and technical progress.
Ann: I also thought of how much it had been done by the people to reach the present state of the development of the human society.
Pete: Yes, Ann. And it is necessary to say that great contribu¬tion of the development of world science had also been made by the Russian scientists and inventors before the Revolution.
Ann: Right you are, Pete. She does not know the names of the great Russian scientists and inventors such as Lomonosov, Mendeleyev, Sechenov, Pavlov, Michurin and many others?
Pete: I think that it's hardly possible to name a branch of science in the development of which the Russian scientists have not played the greatest role. What do you think of it, Ann?
Ann: I am of your opinion. Lomonosov was an outstanding innovator both in the humanities and in exact sciences. He founded the first Russian University. Mendeleyev’s greatest discovery was his Periodic 'System of Elements. Popov invented radio. Sechenov and Pavlov «ere the world's greatest physiologists. Tsiolkovsky is the father of rocket flying. He had decided the principles of jet propel¬led flying machines for interplanetary communication.
Pete: Michurin was the greatest Russian scientist and selectionist. His main doctrine of the development of biology has been expressed in his conclusion: “We cannot wait for favours from nature”.
Text 8 (для студентов заочников I курса)
GRAMMAR: GERUND
WORK AND ENERGY
Many of the words we use in our everyday speech, assume a more exact meaning in the language of science. Let is take the word "work". Besides its being a word in common use, it is a scientific term that has naturally grown out of human experience.
When we are studying or teaching we say that we are working. Studying or teaching may be very hard, but no physicist will ever call it work. Work is done when a force moves something.
In physics the term "work" is defined as a product of force and displacement in the direction of force. For example, one can do work by drawing water from wells. Pushing something along the floor against friction also means doing work.
Work and energy are closely connected. The capacity for doing work is called energy. It can exist in many forms such as kinetic, potential, electrical, etc. Energy Is measured in the same units as work and like work is a scalar quantity.
In mechanics we are interested in kinetic as well as in potential energy.
The kinetic energy of a body is the energy it possesses because of its speed. An airplane travelling at a speed of, say, 500 km/hr, is able to rise a few meters higher without using any power from the motors. Thus, any moving body is able to do work simply because it is moving.

TEXT N9 (для студентов заочников I курса)
GRAMMAR: PARTICIPLE I, PARTICIPLE II
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
The fact that a limited number of chemical elements compose all the materials people find on earth shows the importance of each of them. Some of the elements are very common on the earth, others are rare. Many of the elements are never seen in pure form by most chemists, so rare are they. In fact, some seventy-five of the elements make up less than one per cent of the earth. However, the future may discover important uses for some of these little known and rare elements.
Elements are characterized by some properties as their colour, hardness, odor, taste, density, solubility in water or others liquids, ability to conduct electricity and others. The ability to born in air and the manner in which an element enters into chemical reactions with other substances are also properties that help to distinguish one element from another. For example, oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas with a density at standard conditions of pressure and temperature of about one seven-hundredth that of water. It is soluble in water, and it becomes liquid at about 180 below zero on the centigrade thermo¬meter.
Similarly, these properties determine whether a substance is necessary or useful industrially. Copper is of great value, being a good conductor of electricity. Carbon and hydrogen are also useful because they combine readily with oxygen, i.e. burn, and able because of the several important properties it possesses. It is a hard metal which does not melt when it is heated to high temperatures producing white light. It does not rust and is not affected by cold acids. Thus it is very useful and is now consi¬dered one of the very important metals.

Тext 10 (ДЛЯ ЗАОЧНИКОВ I КУРСА)
RUSSIA IN SPACE
The Russian science and technology were the first to make great contributions to the development of space, Russia space attempts have concentrated on space research tasks aimed at providing more and better data on the normal and disturbed characteristics of the upper atmosphere and space environment and determining their effects on man and materials.
In order to set up long-term orbital stations, and to make inter¬planetary flights in the future, it is necessary to obtain accurate data on weightlessness and other factors affecting the human organism during space flights, and on the possibility of living and working in space for a long time.
The next, and no less important, step in the Russia space programme is the exploration of the Moon, the planets of the solar system and interplanetary space with the aid of automatic space stations (ASS).
If is absolutely clear now that these "robot-cosmonauts" are able to cope with many very complex tasks, excluding the risk of life. The use оf such stations are more advantageous at the present stare in the progress of cosmonautics, than manned space flights. And as for the exploration of the planets of the solar system robots are matchless, at least for the near future.
On Nov. 17,1970, - a new chapter was opened in lunar research when the Soviet station Luna-17 made a soft landing and the self-propelled Lunokhod 1 robot vehicle started its travels over the Moon.